Are wars necessary in the evolutionary destiny of human beings, although they cause extreme suffering? War is undoubtedly hell, but the question is, does some good emerge from it in the long run? True to the cyclic nature of life, war is also seen as leading to a new beginning; as an aftermath to destruction, it can build stronger societies and introduce innovations, reforms, and political realignments. All these are the hopeful[i] outcomes till society once again hurtles to the inevitable recurrence of destruction. There is a constant spiral of destruction and creation from which human society rises to innovate and strengthen itself, creating a new world order that carries the seeds of self-destruction.

In our memory, the First World War was supposed to be the Mother of all Wars, to end all future wars. The League of Nations, a world organisation, was formed to prevent such a devastating recurrence. It failed because of its contradictions, and the Second World War followed. The United Nations was born. But this, too, has not succeeded in preventing repeated and ongoing global strife, taking a devastating toll and causing untold suffering. If the UN has also become outmoded, will there be further evolution? No one knows because there is no linear progression.

In the larger Cosmic Play of Life, descent to the lowest place occurs before further evolution happens. Species die, but mutations give rise to new living creatures. Life appears to be a continuous cyclic process of destruction and creation, death and life, and cause and effect.

The Great War of Ancient India

There is a history of wars in India, as is evident from the earliest written document, the Rig Veda. Why were they fought? A king was duty-bound to expand his empire through conquest or an Ashvamedha yagna. Ideological reasons instigated wars between Aryans and non-Aryans. Contenders for power fought each other, often exacerbated by clan and family rivalries.

Since time immemorial, and because wars seemed necessary and inevitable, there were rules to ameliorate suffering and destruction. But this was only a pipe dream because the sole aim of war was to win. This becomes abundantly clear in the epic war of Mahabharata and the war that preceded it.

The Mahabharata is a fratricidal war of annihilation of the Kuru clan, with the Kauravas and Pandavas, convinced of the righteousness of their cause, staking their claim to the throne of Hastinapura. However, long before it, another war of similar magnitude is spoken of in the 7th Mandala of the Rig Veda.[ii] The historicity of the two wars has been debated and interpreted differently by scholars relying primarily on literary evidence in the Vedas, Puranas, Brahmanas, and the Mahabharata itself. These may not be conclusive historical evidence, but they remain undeniable.

The Battle of Ten Kings

The Rig Veda has several narratives of wars and battles between different tribes and clans. The most prominent is the Battle of Ten Kings, and before it is the battle of twenty kings.

These battles were not just between the Aryans and indigenous tribes, as some scholars have affirmed. There were conflicts between the Aryans themselves, also. Those Aryans who mingled with the indigenous tribes and took to ‘un-Aryan’ practices were perceived as ‘fallen’ and had to be brought back into the fold. Therefore, the Dasa and the Dasyu, against whom the battles took place, could be either “fallen Aryans” or indigenous tribes.[iii] These were clashes between different world views and values. Significantly, the names of the hero of the Battle of Ten Kings, Sudasa, and his grandfather or father, Divodasa, end in ‘dasa’. Therefore, ‘dasa’ does not necessarily mean someone from an indigenous tribe.

According to the 61st hymn of the 6th Mandala of the Rig Veda, the great hero Divodasa was the son of Vadhryasva, whose kingdom, Arachosia, was by the side of the Saraswati in southern Afghanistan. Pleased with Vadhryasva’s devotion and offerings to her to get a son, River Saraswati gave him Divodasa as a gift. Divodasa came down from Afghanistan to defeat the powerful king Sambar, described as a Rakshasa or a demon. Divodasa destroyed 99 hill-fort cities and crushed Sambar. It is said that Indra himself destroyed the hundredth fortress. All the battles the Aryans fought are shown as dependent on Indra or even fought by him. Hence, most of their accounts appear in the hymns to Indra in the Rig Veda. This emphasises the seers who have the power to invoke and seek Indra's help. Rishi Bharadwaja was Divodasa’s seer, and Vishwamitra and Vashishtha of Sudas. Therefore, another strong motif was the establishment of Aryan ideology and practices. Anyone who deviates from it becomes the ‘other’ to be crushed.

Sudas stood against the confederate of ten kings and their allies. He inherited the kingdom from Divodasa and extended it further with the help of Vishwamitra and Vashishtha. After becoming king, he did an Ashvamedha yagna and led his sacrificial horse to victory over several kingdoms. He meets stiff resistance only at Magadha. Hymn 53 of the 3rd Mandala, Vishwamitra prays to Indra for Sudas to be victorious in the universe. He brings about an alliance with the Kushikas, telling them to let Sudas’ horse go so that he can continue and win riches.

Details of the Battle are given in Hymn 18 of the 7th Mandala. It is difficult to ascertain the date of the battle. Different dates have been propounded, ranging from 3700 BCE to 2900 BCE. According to Frawley,[iv] the Rig Veda comprises geographical and geophysical evidence, which shows that the Vedas were composed over 600 years, while the Saraswati was in full flow from the mountains to the sea. It has been said to have dried around 1900 BCE to 1600 BCE.

Among the tribes that participated were the five major tribes with family rivalries. The Bharatas were the descendants of Puru, the youngest son of Yayati. They derived their name from Bharata, the son of Shakuntala and Dushyanta, whose sixteenth descendant was said to be Sudas, the chief of the Bharatas.[v] Yadu, Anu, Druhyu, and Turvasa were the descendants of the other four sons of Yayati, whose names they carried. Since Puru, the youngest son, had agreed to take on Yayati’s old age in exchange for his youth, Yayati left the central and major part of his kingdom to Puru, and he divided the rest among his four other sons. This led to immense heartburn as they never forgave their father for this perceived injustice. The Bharata clan, at some point, split into the Trtsu-Bharatas and Purus. The Purus fought against Sudas, the Trtsu-Bharata. Sudas attained supremacy, and after his convincing victory, the Trtsu Bharatas became dominant.

The Rig Veda actually refers to two interconnected battles. One is the battle of ten kings, and the other is against the army led by the king of Bhedas Shimyu. In reality, more than ten kings fought in the confederacy against Sudas: The Turvasa, Puroda, Bhrigu, Druhyu, Paktha, Bhalana, Alina, Anu, Siva, Visanin and the Vaikarnya tribes. Sudas had no allies, and his chief priest was Vashishtha. More than 6,666 soldiers stood against Sudas. This was an unequal battle, with Sudas being much weaker than the combined strength of the kings who opposed him. However, he gained a resounding victory as Indra intervened, breaching a natural dyke on the river and drowning all the enemy soldiers. In another battle, Sudas defeated a coalition of the Asas, Sigrus and Yaksus led by the Bheda king Shimyu on the eastern side of the banks of the Yamuna. At the end of the battles, Sudas gave Vashishtha a lavish reward of 200 cows, two chariots and four brown steeds decked with pearls.

Additional information is given in Hymns 19, 33 and 83 of the 7th Mandala.[vi] They emphasise the power of Rishi Vashishtha’s prayers and invocations on behalf of Sudas, whose vulnerability is again repeated and how Indra gives him victory in the face of inevitable defeat. Hymn 83 invokes Indra and Varuna together as Indra aids the supplicants in war, and Varuna upholds the cosmic order or the Rta, indicating that he was on the side of Sudas.

All these battles were fought on ideological grounds on who upheld the Aryan values and practices. The gods, whether Indra or Varuna, helped those Aryans who prayed to them. The wars were seen as affairs of the priests who were more successful in invoking the gods. The kings were the fighting arm battling with faith in their priests. They attributed their success to the gods. A political alignment between the Purus and Bharatas, together with factions of some other tribes, followed after the war. This led to the establishment of the Kuru clan, which we meet in the Mahabharata.

The Mahabharata War

The Battle of Ten Kings established the Kuru clan, and ironically, after the annihilation in the Mahabharata war, the Kuru clan rose like a phoenix as the much more potent and dominant dynasty of the Parikshitas after King Parikshit, Arjuna’s grandson, who succeeded Yudhishthira.

The Mahabharata war is in stark contrast to the Battle of Ten Kings at one level, although family rivalries are a part of both. In the latter, ideology and the seers played a vital part, but in the Kuru kingdom of Dhritarashtra, there is complete moral blindness. There is neither ideology nor values, only the naked and relentless pursuit of power. The sages either take a back seat, are ignored, or become combatants. Vyasa, for instance, is ignored throughout. Narada and others are on the periphery, while Dronacharya and Kripacharya are leading combatants. Like Bhishma's, those who wield the highest authority are venerated, their ethics and learning are enmeshed in a warped sense of duty. Suppose Indra was the presiding deity in the Rig Vedic wars. In that case, it is Krishna in the Mahabharata, and at least in human terms, he instigates many unethical actions on the battlefield.[vii] The loss of values is seen both personally and in the public domain.

Bhishma laid down the rules for the war in consonance with the accepted laws.[viii] The Mahabharata enunciates the principles in the Bhishma, Shanti, and Rajadharma Parvas, according to which the war had to be fought. It was agreed that the warriors would fight each other without stratagem or treachery. No man would take up arms against another without prior notice. When one was engaged with another, no third man would intervene.

Only warriors in similar circumstances would encounter each other. A king would fight a king, a car-warrior with another; a cavalry officer would face his counterpart, and foot soldier to foot soldier. It was forbidden to kill a fallen warrior who had laid down his weapon, had been mortally wounded, was weak with wounds, or was engaged in fighting with another.

Violence was not to be perpetrated on non-combatants; specific means and methods of destruction were forbidden. Only such instruments were to be used as would merely disable the enemy. Weapons that caused excessive pain or suffering, more than necessary to overcome the enemy force, were condemned. Ruthless destruction and sweeping devastation were not allowed. The king had to deal with his foe, but it was unethical to engage in large-scale killing.

As the war commenced, the rules were forgotten. The violation began with Bhishma himself. He chose to fight on the wrong side because of his misguided notion of the vow to protect the throne of Hastinapura and its kings. He was confused between the ruling king and the throne as the seat of governance and kingship. It was within his power to stop the rulers from wrongdoing. If he wanted to protect the throne and its king, he should have prevented Dhritarashtra and Duryodhana from acting unrighteously. His silence when Duryodhana made various attempts on the lives of the Pandavas, being a mute spectator while Draupadi was publicly humiliated, and his inability to protect her even after she appealed to him directly all emanated from his confusing the throne with the ruler. He fought on the side of the Kauravas and became their commander-in-chief, but with the strange condition that he would not harm the Pandavas themselves. He massacred thousands of soldiers every day, but as long as the Pandavas were alive, the Kauravas could not win the war. Further into the war, Bhishma, who had the boon of choosing the time of his death, revealed to Yudhishthira how he could be felled, a strange action for the commander of the opposing army.

The Turning Point

Nonetheless, Bhishma had a restraining influence on the battlefield. After he fell on the tenth day, the floodgates of savagery opened. Dronacharya became the Commander of the Kaurava army. When he was unsuccessful in capturing Yudhishthira, whom Arjuna rescued, the Kauravas were heading towards defeat. Duryodhana chided Drona for Yudhishthira’s escape. An embarrassed Drona assured Duryodhana that on the following day, he would form a chakravyuha that even the devas could not penetrate. Only Arjuna and Sri Krishna knew of this art of warfare and had to be kept away from that part of the battlefield.

According to plan, the Susharmas and the Trigartas drew Arjuna away to the south side of the battlefield while Drona formed the chakravyuha. Its petals were protected by Drona, Karna, Shalya, Kripacharya, Ashwatthama, Duryodhana, Jayadratha, Bhurishravas, and millions of troops. The Pandavas were all pushed back. Yudhishthira realised the need to penetrate the chakravyuha. Only Abhimanyu knew how to enter it. However, he did not know how to come out. Yudhishthira placed an intolerable psychological burden on Abhimanyu that he would do his father proud by piercing the formation. He assured them they would all follow him and fight by his side. This son of Arjuna and Subhadra, the brave and valiant Abhimanyu, was ready.

While Abhimanyu entered the chakravyuha, the others could not. Jayadratha invoked an earlier boon granted to him by Shiva that he would be able to hold the Pandavas back one day during the war. Abhimanyu single-handedly fought and defeated all the Kaurava warriors. Shakuni thought of an evil plan. He convinced Duryodhana that they could do it collectively while none of them could kill Abhimanyu in single combat. Drona, who should have known better, approved of this horrifying violation of the ethics of warfare.

Karna cut off Abhimanyu’s bowstring, Kritavarman killed the horses, and Kripacharya, slayed the charioteer. Enraged by this unfairness, Abhimanyu descended from the chariot, sword in hand, and lunged towards the warriors surrounding him. Drona shattered his sword and Karna his shield. Abhimanyu took the wheel of his chariot and ran towards Ashwatthama. The wheel, too, was destroyed, and all the Kaurava warriors pierced Abhimanyu with the arrows. Mortally wounded, he continued to fight one-to-one combat with Duhshasana’s son. But he was brutally killed by all the enemies together. In this heinous killing of Abhimanyu, all rules of war were violated with Dronacharya’s blessings. This was a turning point.

Vows and Krishna’s Unchallenged Stratagems

After this, Krishna’s sole aim was victory for the Pandavas and for all Kaurava warriors to be killed. Maddened with grief by the unjust killing of Abhimanyu, Arjuna vowed to kill Jayadratha by nightfall, and if he failed, he would kill himself. Duryodhana ensured that Jayadratha was well-guarded on the battlefield throughout the day, making it impossible for Arjuna to reach him. Arjuna fought fiercely with the Kaurava warriors, all of whom tried to block his path to Jayadratha. Both sides anxiously searched the western horizon to see if the sun was setting, the Kauravas to celebrate Jayadratha’s survival, and the Pandavas anxious about Arjuna’s life. As the sun seemed to set and darkness fell, Jayadratha and the Kauravas were jubilant. Lulled by a sense of security, Jayadratha came out. Immediately, Krishna told Arjuna that the sun was still visible on the western horizon and ordered him to kill Jayadratha. Krishna had created the darkness to give the impression that the sun had set. Arjuna’s shaft severed Jayadratha’s head.

Yudhishthira led his army fiercely against Drona. On the 14th day, the rule of ceasefire at sunset was violated. The war continued with lighted torches. Bhima’s son from Hidimba, Ghatotkacha, fought fiercely with his troops. They were the strongest at night. They violently attacked Duryodhana’s army and destroyed thousands of his men. Desperate, Duryodhana ordered Karna to kill Ghatotkacha using Indra’s invincible spear. But Karna could use it only once, and he had kept it for the inevitable decisive encounter with Arjuna. Seeing, however, the destruction taking place, Karna hurled the spear at Ghatotkacha, killing him.

Dharma Abandoned

The battle with Drona raged, spreading fear and confusion in the Pandava army. No one could defeat Drona while following the rules of warfare, and Krishna said so to Arjuna. Dharma had to be discarded. Only the news of the death of his son, Ashwatthama, would stop Drona. Someone had to tell him that Ashwatthama was dead. Arjun shrank from lying to his teacher. Yudhishthira took the sin upon himself as there was no other way. Bhima killed an elephant called Ashwatthama and loudly proclaimed that he had killed Ashwatthama. Drona would not believe this until Yudhishthira confirmed it, believing he would not utter an untruth even for sovereignty over the three worlds. Yudhishthira was extremely apprehensive, and Krishna was anxious because all would be lost if Yudhishthira failed at that moment. Yudhishthira trembled at the concept, but deep in his heart, he, too, wanted to win at any cost. He hardened his heart and proclaimed that Ashwatthama was dead, adding under his breath, Ashwatthama, the elephant. As this great sin was committed, the wheels of Yudhishthira’s chariot, which had always been four inches above the ground because of his righteousness, came crashing down.

Hearing of the death of his son, Drona threw away his weapons. He sat in yogic meditation on the floor of his chariot and went into a trance. Seeing this, Dhrishtadyumna pounced upon him with his sword and, heedless of the cries of horror around him, decapitated him. He thus fulfilled the destiny for which he was born but on no moral ground.

Karna was installed as the succeeding commander of the army. Shalya, the king of Madra, found it demeaning to be Karna’s charioteer as he regarded him as inferior by caste. Yet he accepted to be the charioteer because he wanted to avenge himself on Duryodhana, who had tricked him into fighting from the Kaurava side against the Pandavas. Thus, he endeavoured to disparage and demoralise Karna continuously.

Arjuna, supported by Bhima, led the attack on Karna. Duhshasana attacked Bhima, who remembered Duhshasana’s role in Draupadi’s humiliation and his vow to kill him and drink his blood. Bhima leapt on Duhshasana, hurled him down and broke his limbs. He tore out the arm that had held the Draupadi by her hair and then tore open Duhshasana’s chest and drank his blood. He fulfilled this one pledge.

Looking at this grizzly sight, even Karna was shaken. Duryodhana was now in despair. Looking at how the war was going, even at this late stage, Ashwatthama asked Duryodhana to consider peace, but it was too late. Too much blood had been shed, and there was no turning back. Perhaps Duryodhana’s fear and insecurity prevented him from considering a cessation of hostilities. He had just heard Bhima repeating his pledge to break his thigh. How could there be peace now? Duryodhana ordered a renewed attack on the Pandavas.

Then followed the great battle between Karna and Arjuna. Karna shot a dazzling arrow that spat fire and made straight for Arjuna. Krishna pressed the chariot five fingers deep into the mud so that the shaft missed Arjuna’s head but removed his crown. Arjuna, red with shame and anger, fixed an arrow on his bow to end Karna’s life. The fated hour had come. As had been foretold, the wheel of Karna’s chariot got stuck in the ground. Karna leapt down unarmed to retrieve it and urged Arjuna to desist from attacking him, knowing the rules of war. Arjuna hesitated, but Krishna intervened and reminded Karna of his dishonourable behaviour throughout his life: conspiring with Duryodhana to poison Bhima in his plan to burn the Pandavas and Kunti in the lakshagraha; supporting Duryodhana and denying Yudhishthira his share of the kingdom; humiliating Draupadi; and finally, his role in killing the unarmed Abhimanyu. He thus had no right to ask for chivalry and fair play. As Krishna denounced Karna, he urged Arjuna to kill him. Karna bent his head and sat down in his chariot without uttering a word. He then shot a powerful arrow at Arjuna that stunned the latter for a while. Karna again descended from his chariot to take out the stuck wheel. The wheel would not budge because of Parashurama’s curse. Seeing Arjuna waver, Krishna ordered him to slay his enemy. Arjuna immediately obeyed the command and severed Karna’s head from his body.

After Karna’s death, Shalya became the commander of Duryodhana’s army on the 18th day. Shalya fought fiercely with Yudhishthira. Bhima killed Shalya’s chariot driver. Shalya then took out his mace and rushed towards Bhima. Both engaged in a one-to-one combat and fell to the ground. At that time, Kripacharya took Shalya away on his chariot.

After regaining his strength, Shalya re-entered the battlefield. Yudhishthira killed Shalya’s horses. This time, Ashwatthama rescued Shalya. However, Yudhishthira followed. Shalya ascended another chariot and proceeded against Yudhishthira, giving a fierce battle to all who came in his way. Shalya killed Yudhishthira’s horses. Yudhishthira then sat in his chariot and released a golden dart that he had received from Shiva. It entered Shalya’s chest, and the king of Madra fell to the earth and died.

Duryodhana now left the battlefield for a while. A fierce battle ensued, and Duryodhana’s army was further decimated. Bhima, Nakula and Sahadeva turned their attention to Shakuni and the division that he was leading. Shakuni was devastated when his son Uluka got killed and remembered Vidura’s warning about the annihilation of the Kshatriya race. Knowing his death at hand, Shakuni released all his weapons on Sahadeva, who overcame all of them and pierced Shakuni with many arrows, cut off both his arms and then, with a razor-sharp arrow, severed his head.

By now, Duryodhana’s entire army had been wiped out. Only four men remained: Duryodhana, Kritavarman, Ashwatthama, and Kripacharya. Duryodhana retreated from the battlefield and came upon a lake. Wanting to rest before engaging the Pandavas in final combat, he entered it and solidified its waters. Bleeding profusely, he recalled that Vidura had repeatedly warned him of his complete defeat.

Balarama arrived just when Duryodhana and Bhima were engaged in the final phase of mace combat. He saw Bhima aim a deadly blow below Duryodhana’s navel, which broke his thighs, violating all rules of single combat. Fatally wounded, Duryodhana lay on the floor. Balarama was enraged. Condemning Bhima, he advanced towards him with his plough held aloft. However, Krishna intervened, reminding Balarama of all the wrongs done by the Kauravas against the Pandavas, of Draupadi’s humiliation and Bhima’s vow to break Duryodhana’s thighs. He also reminded Balarama of how Abhimanyu was killed and told him that every action had to be understood in its context. There was no sin in killing Duryodhana, continued Krishna. Bhima had restrained his anger for thirteen long years, and now he had fulfilled the vow, publicly taken. Balarama was not convinced, but his anger subsided. As he left for Dwarka, he said that while Duryodhana would attain the happy regions of the brave, Bhima would always be remembered with this blot against his name.

Reflection and Introspection

Yudhishthira was silent. He was shaken to see how Bhima had leapt on the mortally wounded body of Duryodhana and trampled his head. He foretold that the glory of his race would now die. He acknowledged Duryodhana’s grievous wrongs and understood Bhima’s anger. While there was no point in debating the ethics of Bhima’s actions, he was painfully aware of the wrong Bhima had committed by humiliating Duryodhana. Arjuna was also quiet, saying nothing by way of detraction or justification.

Writhing in excruciating pain, Duryodhana blamed Krishna for all the unethical strategies the Pandavas resorted to during the war. He knew that it was Krishna who signalled Bhima to strike him on his thighs. Krishna contrived the fall of Bhishma by advising that Shikhandi should be placed in front of him. Krishna made Yudhishthira utter a falsehood that brought about Dronacharya’s death. Krishna encouraged Dhrishtadyumna to severe Dronacharya’s head while the latter was in a yogic trance. It was Krishna who induced Arjuna to kill the defenceless Karna. Krishna made the sun disappear and reappear to catch Jayadratha off guard and enable Arjuna to kill him. Duryodhana concluded that Krishna was the sole cause of all the destruction that had taken place.

Krishna then responded that Duryodhana’s misdeeds were too long to be recounted. He was paying for his greed and misdemeanours. The worst deed is Draupadi’s humiliation. All the deceptions on the battlefield that Duryodhana had recounted said Krishna, had been forced upon them because of Duryodhana’s inherent wickedness. However, now that he was dying with the glory of a brave man, he would attain the region reserved for those who lay down their lives on the battlefield.

Even at this moment, Duryodhana was not cowed down. He said he would ascend to heaven to live with his friends and relatives who had preceded him and were waiting to welcome him. He was dying as a hero. Who was more blessed, he asked, he or those who would now linger on earth mourning for their slaughtered friends in desolate homes? The triumph that they had sought had turned into ashes. The gods showered flowers on the dying warrior, and the Gandharvas played music as the sky got illuminated. Krishna accepted that there was truth in what Duryodhana had said.

Ashwatthama’s Degradation

He was furious when Ashwatthama saw the vitiated combat between Bhima and Duryodhana. Together with Kritavarman and Kripacharya, he approached Duryodhana, lying on the ground with his broken body and asked him what he wished them to do. Duryodhana then appointed Ashwatthama as his last commander and his family’s honour keeper. He asked him to take revenge on the Pandavas. Specifically, he wanted the Pandavas and the Panchalas killed. Ashwatthama assured him this would be done and that he would give him the news that night before Duryodhana breathed his last.

Ashwatthama decided to kill all the sleeping warriors in the Pandava camp to avenge Duryodhana. Kripacharya tried his best to dissuade him, pointing out that it was against all laws of Kshatriya dharma. Ashwatthama retorted that all laws and rules of warfare had already been broken. Kripacharya disagreed, but he and Kritavarman decided they could not abandon Ashwatthama, so they would partake in his sin.

Meanwhile, Krishna had taken the Pandavas away from the camp. Ashwatthama, Kritavarman, and Kripacharya entered the camp. Ashwatthama kicked Dhrishtadyumna to death as a punishment for his great sin of killing his father and teacher. He killed Shikhandi for his role in the falling Bhishma. Ashwatthama put down thousands of sleeping soldiers and finally hacked to death the five sons of Draupadi. He set fire to the Pandava camp and went to tell Duryodhana, who died a deeply satisfied man. Breathing his last, he said that Ashwatthama had done what Bhishma, Drona, and Karna could not do for him. Ashwatthama then left for Vyasa’s ashram.

Yudhishthira fainted when the Pandavas saw the horrendous disaster, and Draupadi demanded Ashwatthama’s death. Because Ashwatthama could not be killed, she demanded that at least the gem on his forehead be torn as revenge. Bhima went in search of Ashwatthama, followed by the Pandavas. Seeing them approach, Ashwatthama invoked and fired the Brahmastra. Krishna also had to ask Arjuna to fire the Brahmashira. Sage Vyasa intervened to prevent the weapons from clashing against each other and annihilating the world. He ordered both to recall their weapons. Arjuna could, but Ashwatthama could not. Instead, he directed the weapon to pregnant Uttara’s womb to end the lineage of the Pandavas. Krishna saved the child, who grew up to be Parikshit.

Krishna cursed Ashwatthama to lead a miserable life for 3000 years, shunned by all, as pus oozed off his sores. The gem from his forehead was torn out and handed to Draupadi, who gave it to Yudhishthira to wear in his crown. What Ashwatthama said in answer to Krishna is significant: he would be wherever Krishna was, meaning that the distinction between dharma and adharma would always remain ambiguous, so destruction would come again and again.

History Repeats Itself

The Kuru dynasty rose from the ashes of the war to become even stronger than before. Michael Witzel points out that the golden age of the Kurus came under Parikshit and his son Janamajeya.[ix] He established the dynasty of the Parikshatas. The Parikshatas formed and consolidated the Kuru tribe and permanently established the Bharata-Kuru chiefdom. It was the earliest state on Indian soil. It had a new socio-religious basis, and their practices became a lasting feature of the Vedic period, the echoes of which are heard even today. Kurukshetra became a centre of political power and the newly emerging Vedic orthodoxy. The Vedic hymns were arranged into collections; the varnas were more clearly and firmly articulated, and the orthodox strauta ritual was developed. At this time, various Rig Vedic tribes that had fused to form a single Kuru tribe expanded into two: the Kuru with three constituting tribes and the Panchala with six. The Kuru union became a powerful polity. Its sheer size among the few other surviving Vedic tribes ensured its dominance. This continued for several generations when a flood forced the Kuru king to relocate from Hastinapura to Kausambi. Considerably weakened, the Salvas defeated him, and the dynasty ended.

Concluding Thoughts

Wars are a long time in the making. Family rivalries, ideologies, desires for dominance, conquest, and expansion are all couched in ‘righteousness’. The lapse between the seed of war and an actual war makes the situation more complex. Yayati’s actions simmered for generations, although the immediate trigger was the Ashvamedha of Sudas. Overlooking Dhritarashtra’s claim in favour of Pandu strengthened Duryodhana’s claim as the eldest son of the elder brother. Yudhishthira’s right was endorsed because with Pandu having been crowned, the line of succession was moved to his family. All that followed was the germination of that initial action.

Finally, the logic of war is at odds with values in peacetime. Adversaries force each other’s hands. There is continuous “reciprocal action” of escalation in which neither side is guilty even if it acts first because each first act can be claimed to be a pre-emptive one. This logic takes all wars to unimaginable ruthlessness because wars are fought to be won. Human beings do whatever they have to, as the choice is to kill or be killed. Realism takes over from the ethics of war, and all civilisational values are stripped away, revealing the nakedness of human beings driven only by fear and self-preservation.

The actor on the battlefield alone can judge the moral point of view. If self-interest and fear dominate, then talk about justice is mere rhetoric. The warrior’s situation on the ground is the point of reference. An act of wisdom, for one, is retaliation for the other. Defining moral values is problematic even in peace times, but war creates an anarchy of moral meanings.

War seems to lead to reconstructing a new era or even civilisation. If the Battle of Ten Kings established the predominance of the Bharata clan, the Mahabharata war re-aligned it to establish a powerful Kuru state. Finally, one can only stand by the river of time and watch the continuous flow of creation and destruction.

References:
[ii] Ralph T.H.Griffith, Trans. The Complete Rg Veda, Classic Century Works, 2012. All references to Rg Veda are taken from this book.
[iii] Davitd Frawley, Gods, Sages and Kings: Vedic Secrets of Ancient Civilization, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 101—119.
[iv] Ibid, pp. 67--98
[v] Ibid, pp.105--106
[vi] See also, Bimal Kanti Majumdar, The Military System in Ancient India, Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, 1960, pp. 7-20.
Ramprasad Chanda, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No. 41, Survival of the Prehistoric Civilisation of the Indus Valley, New Delhi: Director General Archaeological Survey of India, 1998.
[vii] Bimal Krishna Maltilal, “Krishna: In Defence of a Devious Deity,” Jonardon Ganeri, ed. The Collected Essays of Bimal K. Matilal: Philosophy, Culture and Religion, Ethics and Epics, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.
[viii] V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, War in Ancient India, Macmillan and Company, 1944, pp.67—73.
See also, S.V. Vishwanath, International Law in Ancient India, Longman’s Green and Company, 1925, pp. 108—163.
[ix] Michael Witzel,, “Early Sanskritization: Origins and Development of the Kuru State,” Journal of the Indological Society of South Africa, Vol. 4, December 1996, pp.1—36.
See also, H.C.Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, July 1996, pp.12-43
Usha R. Bhise, The Khila Suktas of the Rg Veda: A Study, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1956. See Khila 5.10.1 and 5.10.2

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